Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) lithography machines are among the most complex technologies in the semiconductor industry, serving as a fundamental pillar for the production of advanced processors and chips. The Dutch company ASML is the sole commercial manufacturer of these machines, which gives it a strategic position in the global technology race.
The importance of this technology lies not only in its ability to print electronic circuits at extremely small dimensions, but also in the complex engineering and industrial ecosystem behind it, which combines lasers, optics, physics, software, and ultra-precise control systems.
How does light print electronic circuits?
The chip industry relies on lithography technology to transfer electronic circuit patterns onto the surface of a silicon wafer, using light and light-sensitive chemicals. This process enables the production of billions of transistors on a small area, contributing to increased processor performance and improved energy efficiency.
For decades, the industry relied on Deep Ultraviolet (DUV) light, which has a wavelength of 193 nanometers. With the increasing need to shrink transistors, this technology has required additional manufacturing steps, which increases costs and production complexity.
This is where Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) technology emerged, with a wavelength of 13.5 nanometers, which is about 14 times shorter than the wavelength of DUV light. After many years of research and development, chips manufactured using this technology began entering the stage of mass commercial production in 2019.
This technology allows for the printing of the precise patterns required in the most advanced layers of processors and memory, making it one of the essential pillars for developing modern generations of semiconductors.
A machine that defies the limits of physics
The difficulty of manufacturing EUV machines begins with the production of the light itself. The system developed by ASML relies on directing high-energy laser pulses toward tiny droplets of molten tin to generate plasma that emits the required light.
The machine fires about 50,000 tin droplets per second, as the laser pulses work to prepare the droplets and then convert them into plasma capable of emitting extreme ultraviolet rays.
However, generating light is only the beginning; the resulting light is quickly absorbed when passing through air or ordinary glass, which requires operating the system inside a vacuum chamber and directing it using specialized, ultra-precise mirrors instead of traditional lenses.
The process also requires advanced systems for heat and vibration control, adjusting the movement of silicon wafers, and maintaining the cleanliness of the mirrors and the accuracy of their alignment. Any defect, no matter how small, can affect the quality of the printed patterns and the production rate.
The secret of the monopoly... a network of expertise, not a single machine
Although ASML is the only company that sells EUV machines commercially, it does not manufacture all of its components on its own; rather, it relies on a network of specialized suppliers, each of whom possesses expertise that is difficult to replace.
The German company Carl Zeiss develops the optical systems and ultra-precise mirrors, while Cymer contributes to light generation technologies, and Trumpf provides the high-energy laser systems used in the process.
This system relies on decades of development in materials science, nano-coatings, precision measurement, and manufacturing in clean environments. Furthermore, manufacturing the components alone is not enough; they must be integrated and tuned so that they all work in perfect harmony.
For this reason, the secret of superiority cannot be reduced to the design of the machine or knowledge of its components; ASML's advantage lies in its ability to transform thousands of elements and technologies into an integrated industrial system that operates with high stability and productivity.
Why is reverse engineering not enough?
Dismantling an advanced machine might help in understanding its internal structure, components, and methods of operation, but it does not necessarily provide the knowledge required to remanufacture it with the same level of precision and efficiency.
There is a significant difference between knowing how a mirror works and manufacturing a mirror to the required specifications, and between producing a powerful and stable light source and integrating it with optical, kinetic, and software systems that work simultaneously.
This process requires cumulative expertise in calibration, manufacturing, and quality control, alongside the ability to troubleshoot and continuously improve performance. Moreover, reaching a model that works in a laboratory does not mean the ability to produce chips in commercial quantities with low defect rates.
ASML and its partners spent more than two decades developing EUV technology, with investments exceeding 6 billion euros over 17 years, according to estimates in the report.
The challenge does not end with the delivery of the machine to the factory, as its continued operation depends on periodic maintenance, spare parts, software updates, and specialized technical support services.
A race that does not stop at the current generation
Competition is not limited to current EUV machines; ASML has moved on to developing a more advanced generation known as High-Numerical Aperture Extreme Ultraviolet (High-NA EUV) lithography.
The numerical aperture in this generation increases from 0.33 to 0.55, which improves the ability to image finer details and supports the manufacturing of more advanced generations of chips.
However, this development imposes additional challenges, including the development of larger and more complex optical systems, the improvement of mirrors and measurement and alignment techniques, as well as increased requirements for thermal control and mechanical precision.
Thus, the challenge for competitors is not limited to catching up with current technology; they must also keep pace with a new generation that is constantly evolving.
China... from prototype to commercial production
China is seeking to reduce its reliance on foreign equipment by developing local lithography machines. Shanghai Micro Electronics Equipment (SMEE) is working on producing immersion Deep Ultraviolet (DUV) lithography machines, with plans to increase production during 2026 and 2027.
In contrast, an investigative report published by Reuters in December 2025 revealed Chinese efforts to build a prototype of an EUV machine. According to the report, the model succeeded in generating the required light, but it had not yet produced functional chips at that time.
China, according to the report, aims to reach the production of functional chips using this technology by 2028, while sources close to the project believe that 2030 might be a more realistic date.
This path reveals the difference between achieving progress in a specific technical component and building a complete industrial ecosystem. Generating light does not mean possessing a system capable of printing patterns accurately, just as printing precise patterns does not guarantee high productivity and commercial manufacturing yields.
In an attempt to overcome the absence of EUV machines, China also relies on optimizing the use of DUV machines through multi-patterning techniques, which divide the printing process into additional steps. However, this method increases complexity, cost, and manufacturing time, and may increase the likelihood of defects.
Export and maintenance restrictions... another front for competition
China faces additional challenges due to restrictions imposed on the export of advanced semiconductor manufacturing equipment. Since 2019, exports of EUV machines to China have not received the necessary licenses, and the restrictions have extended to include some advanced DUV equipment.
The effects of these restrictions do not stop at preventing the purchase of new machines, but also include access to spare parts, software updates, and technical services. In 2024, the Dutch government clarified that providing some spare parts and software updates for chip manufacturing equipment previously sold to Chinese customers requires a license.
The importance of this issue increases because lithography machines require specialized maintenance and constant monitoring to maintain their efficiency. Consequently, restricting technical support may affect the readiness and productivity of the equipment even after it has been installed and put into operation.
The year 2026 also witnessed American moves to tighten control over exports of advanced semiconductor manufacturing equipment to China, within the framework of competition to possess the industrial capabilities necessary to produce the latest chips.
Conclusion
ASML's monopoly on EUV machines is not due to a single technical secret, but to a long accumulation of expertise, investments, and cooperation between specialized companies that have succeeded in transforming extremely complex physical and engineering challenges into a stable commercial manufacturing process.
China can make progress in developing light sources, optical components, and control systems, but the biggest challenge remains assembling these elements into an integrated machine that produces advanced chips with competitive efficiency and cost.
Therefore, the lithography battle is not just about who can build a prototype, but about who has the ability to turn innovation into reliable industrial production, and then continue to develop it with each new generation of processors. In this race, equipment, expertise, and supply chains represent strategic tools of influence that are no less important than the chips themselves.
